A guide to upland habitats

Montane habitats occur in the zone above the original tree line – typically 600 to 700 metres above sea level, but much lower in the north and north-west of Britain. These habitats, which are made up of a mix of grass, sedge, moss heath and dwarf shrubs are largely confined to Scotland, northern and north-west England and north Wales. 

Blanket bogs are soggy habitats, fed by rain, that are found throughout the UK uplands. They’re made up of a variety of different types of peatland and get their name from the way the peat forms a ‘blanket’ over the underlying ground. Blanket bogs cover almost 2.5 million hectares of the UK uplands, with the largest and most intact areas found in northern Scotland and the Western Isles. 

Peat is formed by partially decaying plant material that builds up very slowly over time. As it forms, peat locks away carbon, making it incredibly important in the fight against climate change. 

Healthy blanket bogs are wet places, characterised by a high water table. They’re covered by a spongy layer of peat-forming bog mosses (particularly Sphagnum mosses), as well as other specialised peatland plants, like sundews and cotton grasses. They also feature a sparse covering of dwarf shrubs, such as heather.

Upland heathlands are found throughout upland areas of the UK, where there are shallow peat and mineral soils. They occur in the zone above enclosed farmland, but below montane habitats. Upland heathlands can be wet or dry, depending on the local conditions, and they’re made up of a mix of dwarf shrubs.  

For many years, upland heathland has been burnt on rotation to create suitable habitat to support large numbers of grouse for shooting, as well as livestock grazing. Today, these largely open habitats tend to be dominated by Common/Ling Heather and Bell Heather, alongside a range of berry-bearing shrubs including Crowberry, Blaeberry and Cowberry. Arctic Bearberry is more common in higher more exposed parts of the uplands. In wetter areas, where wet heathland is more prevalent, Ling Heather is joined by Cross-leaved Heath.   

Upland grassland is made up of a mix of grasses and sedges. Like upland heathlands, these grassland habitats are found in the area between the upper limit of enclosed farmland and the start of the montane zone. 

Today, upland grasslands are largely used for sheep grazing and are characterised by Matt Grass, Purple Moor Grass, Sheep’s Fescue and Heath Rush, interspersed with dwarf shrubs. In some places, overgrazing and intensive burning have resulted in grassland replacing areas that were once heathland. In many places, Bracken has spread onto upland grassland, particularly in places that have a history of burning and grazing. 

The uplands were once much more wooded than they are today, with a mix of native broadleaf trees, including Sessile Oak, Ash, Birch, Rowan and Alder, as well as scrub, such as Hawthorn, Willow, Juniper and Gorse. In places, remnant semi-natural and planted broadleaf woodland remains, providing a reminder of how these landscapes once looked.   

Once widespread across the uplands of northern Britain, native Scots Pine is now restricted to a tiny fraction of its former range, with what remains restricted to the northern Highlands of Scotland. Over many generations, these once mighty woods have been cleared by humans, to make way for livestock farming and hunting, particularly of Red Grouse and Red Deer. Today, work is underway to protect and restore Scots Pine across parts of its former range. Deer control is an important part of this work, as lower numbers of deer mean that the trees saplings have a better chance of growing into mature trees.  

Vast areas of non-native plantation forestry (especially Sitka Spruce and Lodgepole Pine) were planted in the uplands, particularly following the creation of the Forestry Commission in 1919 and the introduction of incentives and tax breaks in the 1970s and 1980s. This resulted in the loss of huge swathes of upland blanket bog and heathland, particularly in Wales, northern England, south Scotland and in the northern Highlands of Scotland.  

To create suitable conditions for planting, the ground in these areas was drained, deep ploughed, fenced (to keep out deer) and fertilised. This had a devastating impact on the ability of the land to store carbon, and negatively affected water quality and the flow of water over and through the ground (leading to increased flooding).  

In the uplands, hill farms usually have a small area of enclosed grassland, surrounded by walls or fences, at the bottom of the valley. These areas have usually been ‘improved’ with farmyard manure and lime/slag so that they can be used for lambing, livestock grazing or growing winter fodder (hay and haylage).  

Areas of in-bye are often immediately adjacent to more extensive areas of grazing land, including open areas of grassland and heathland that are managed as common land or are used for common grazing. Today, little in-bye land is cultivated.  

Water is everywhere in the uplands. Lochs and lakes are a characteristic feature of many upland areas, as well as smaller nutrient-poor pools and small lochs (known as lochans) which feed water into a network of streams and rivers.  

In winter, snow and rain are common, particularly in the montane zone. Where the geology and terrain are suitable, fens and flushes are formed when the snow melts or when water emerges from upland springs.  

Wet ‘carr’ woodland, which is characterised by Willow and Alder trees, is a feature of some upland areas, and in parts of the Caledonian pine forest, ancient and stunted Scots Pines grow in boggy areas.  

Elsewhere, the cool, moist temperate climate of upland areas, with frequent rain and near permanent waterlogging of the ground, provides ideal conditions for the formation of peat and peatland pools.  

Inland cliffs and scree slopes are an eye-catching feature on hills and mountains throughout the uplands. Cliff ledges, which are beyond the reach of hungry deer and sheep, offer a refuge for rare alpine plants that were more widespread when there were fewer grazing animals. These cliff ledges are also used as nesting sites by Ravens, Golden Eagles, Peregrine Falcons and Ring Ouzels.    

Limestone pavements are another dramatic upland habitat. These are huge, flat slabs of limestone rock, criss-crossed by cracks and fissures that can be several metres deep. They are home to an array of different plants, with shade-loving species, like ferns, thriving in the fissures, and light-loving species, such as Common Rock-rose, flourishing in the more exposed areas.  

There are only around 3,000 hectares of limestone pavement in the UK, with the best examples in the north-west Highlands of Scotland, parts of Yorkshire and in West Fermanagh.